Section+II+Educational+Research

=**Section II: Educational Research (one essay question)**=

=**Focus:** Quantitative or qualitative research methods.= =**Purpose:** To assess students’ foundational knowledge of educational research methods and their applications.= =**Format:** Respond to one question from the two provided.=
 * __Qualitative Research Methods__**

VERY IMPORTANT!! = = Philosophical assumptions: p17 CresswellOntological: Nature of reality. Reality is subjective and multiple seen by participants in the study. Use quotes, themes and words of participants.Epistemological: Relationship between the researcher and that being researched. The researcher becomes an insider.Axiological: The role of values. Acknowledge reserach is value-laden.Rhetorical: Looks at the language of research and uses personal voice.Methodological: The process of research. Uses inductive logic and emergent design. = Theoretical Assumptions: (paradigms and world views) = Postpositivism: Scientific approach to research. Social Constructivism: Understanding of world in which they live and work. Advocacy/Participatory: for marginalized groups. Research should help provide reform in society. Pragmatism: Mixed methods. Not commited to any one philosophy but a mix of various beliefs. (Oar Me)
 * Theoretical assumptions and philosophical underpinnings of qualitative research
 * Developing problem statements and research questions appropriate to qualitative inquiry
 * Knowledge of the 5 main types of qualitative inquiry (phenomenology, case study, narrative, ethnography, and grounded theory), their focus, design, and applications
 * Types of sampling, data collection methods, and analysis of the data to increase the validity of the findings
 * Ethical considerations in qualitative research

= Developing Problem Statements and Research Questions: = Problem Statement: Describes the need for increased study of an understanding about the issue to be studied. The Central Question- The overarching question, the broadest question, that could be posed about the research problem. 4 types: exploratory, explanatory, descriptive and emancipatory (to engage in social action about the phenomenon). Sub-Questions: Issue-Oriented- address majpr concerns to be resolved. Take the phenomenon and central question and break into sub-topics. Procedural- Anticipated needs for information and procedural steps in thr process of research for the approach.
 * Research Questions: **

Sample Template for a Qualitative Study The purpose of this qualitative _ _( case study, ethnography) is to _ (describe, explore) _ (participants) at _(research site/geographical location). At this stage in the research , the _ (provide a general definition).

Problem-Lawmakers have established that sp needs students are to be educated alongside their nondisabled peers. However, historically included special needs students haven't always agreed. Purpose Statement: The purpose of the phenomenological study will be to understand the meaning ascribed to by the students with LD who are included in regular education classes at a mid sized suburban MS. At this stage of the research, feelings of the students will generally be described as how students feel about themselves, the extenet to which they feel as they belong and how they feel about their relationships with other students. Central Question-What is the meaning of being included in a regular education class for MS students with learning disabilities. Issue subquestions: What does it mean to be an included student in the academic classroom? What does it mean to be an included student in the practical art class? What does it mean to be an included student in the non-academic part of the day?

Procedural Sub Questions: What are the structural meanings of being an included student? What are the underlying themes and contexts for this view of being included? What is the essence of being an included student?

= Sampling, Data Collection Methods and Analysis of the Data to Increase the Validity of the Findings: = //**﻿Types of Sampling:**// Two Types: Probability- Not used for qualitative b/c it is like generalization. Nonprobability is the method of choice for qualitative. The most common form is purposeful sampling and is based on what the investigator wants to discover. **Convenience sampling** is purposeful. It relies on time, money location and availability of site or respondents. **Snowball** is the most common purposeful sampling. The researcher selects a few key participants and then it spreads to include other particiants. Then, there is **typical sampling** that reflects the avearge person, situation or instance of the phenomenon of interest. **Unique** is based on the uniques attribute of the individual. **Maximum variation** is the last which is the widely varying instances of the phenomenon through two perspectives (range). //** Data Collection Methods: **// // Interviews // -Kvale // Observations – // participant/ Merriam 124-125, p130 Cresswell // Documents also // online materials // Audiovisual Materials // –online documents, videos, // These methods can gather an extensive amount of data. How does a researcher work inductively from particulars in the data to more general perspectives to enable themes, codes, categories, dimensions, etc. to emerge? How would a researcher manage data to proceed through the **data analysis** stage? (See Miles & Huberman) // // General analysis Procedures for qualitative study: // // 1. Prepare and organize the data for analysis // // 2. Reduce the data into tehmes for a process of coding and condensing the codes. // // 3. Represent the data in figures, tables or discussion. //
 * // Analysis of Data: p149 Cresswell // **

// The steps become more advanced depending on the theory chosen by the researcher. (Phenomenology) 156 Cresswell. //

Management of data:
 * 1) Formatting – choose a format for organizing notes (loose-leaf notebook, file folders, note cards, etc) – structure should provide a map for the data
 * 2) Cross Reference – data should be cross referenced for easy retrieval
 * 3) Indexing – a coding system which defines categories, organizes categories into less-explicit structure, pairing codes with appropriate places in the database
 * 4) Abstracting – writing condensed versions of longer material
 * 5) Pagination – use unique letters/numbers as locators for materials in field notes

How is triangulation of data, member checking, and peer or external auditors employed as **__validation strategies__**?

<span style="color: #f01414; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Miles & Huberman (1994, p. 267) cite Denzin (1978) as “triangulation by data source (which can include persons, times, places, etc.), by method (observation, interview document), by researcher (investigator A, B, etc.)”. Miles & Huberman include data type (qualitative text, recordings, quantitative). It is characterized by “seeing or hearing multiple instances… from __multiple sources__ by using different methods” (Miles & Huberman, p. 267). <span style="color: #f01414; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Using triangulation gives a study “credibility” Linclon & Guba (Creswell, 2007, p. 204). The researcher takes multiple data sources and compares them, looking to find corroboration amongst the sources. “Member checking” means the participants review the text and/or analysis and results to confirm or disconfirm the findings. Peer or external auditors review the data, much like a bookkeeper (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 282) would perform an audit. An external auditor determines “whether accounts have been kept satisfactorily and whether the bottom line is correct” (p. 282). The researcher has an external source check the data and documentation.

There are **ethical considerations** throughout all phases of the qualitative research process. How does the qualitative researcher anticipate and address the following in the design and implementation of a study:

Belmont Report

The Belmont Report identified **three principles** essential to the ethical conduct of research with humans:


 * 1) **Respect for persons**
 * 2) **Beneficence**
 * 3) **Justice**

**These three basic principles serve as the foundation of the current HHS regulations and guidelines for the ethical conduct of human subjects research supported by HHS. (retrieved from**

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Seek consent – approach the potential participants, inform them of research plans, and obtain signed permission from organization (e.g. school district) and participants themselves

Avoid deception – be open and honest with participants, communicate frequently with them about the research process, and engage them as partners by having them review analysis (use member checks) Miles & Huberman p. 292-293

Maintain confidentiality – create confidentiality agreements about where data and analyses will be stored and who will have access to them (Miles & Huberman, p. 293)

Protect the anonymity of individuals – conceal any identifying information about participants such as, setting, location, demographics, names, age, etc.

Gain access to and withdraw from the site and participants – submit proposal to IRB, obtain consent from organization/participants. Disclosure of motivation to study particular site, anonymity option, and purpose of study help build rapport. (Creswell, 2007, pp. 123-125)

Employ reciprocity – “High quality interpretive or qualitative research involves a reciprocity between the researcher and those being researched. This standard requires that intense sharing, trust, and mutuality exist” (Creswell, 2007, p. 213).

Be sensitive to power imbalances – research methods should maintain the core principles of ethical choices “beneficence, respect, justice” and “mutual respect, non-coercion and non manipulation, and support for democratic values and institutions” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, 289-290).

Use nondiscriminatory language - use terms that demonstrate sensitivity towards participants (Merriam, 2009, p. 186) “categories should be sensitizing”

Maintain respect for participants – see above core principles of ethical choices, be cognizant of harm and risk, ask participants to review analysis and findings before publishing, etc…

Minimize risk to the participants – obtain informed consent, be cognizant of potential harm and risk, maintain privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity.

Analysis begins when the data is first collected and is used to guide decisions related to further data collection. "In communicating--or generating--the data, the researcher must make the process of the study accessible and write descriptively so tacit knowledge may best be communicated through the use of rich, thick descriptions" ([|Myers, 2002]).


 * Criticism of qualitative research**

"Qualitative studies are tools used in understanding and describing the world of human experience. Since we maintain our humanity throughout the research process, it is largely impossible to escape the subjective experience, even for the most seasoned of researchers. As we proceed through the research process, our humanness informs us and often directs us through such subtleties as intuition or 'aha' moments. Speaking about the world of human experience requires an extensive commitment in terms of time and dedication to process; however, this world is often dismissed as 'subjective' and regarded with suspicion. This paper acknowledges that small qualitative studies are not generalizable in the traditional sense, yet have redeeming qualities that set them above that requirement." "A major strength of the qualitative approach is the depth to which explorations are conducted and descriptions are written, usually resulting in sufficient details for the reader to grasp the idiosyncracies of the situation." "The ultimate aim of qualitative research is to offer a perspective of a situation and provide well-written research reports that reflect the researcher's ability to illustrate or describe the corresponding phenomenon. One of the greatest strengths of the qualitative approach is the richness and depth of explorations and descriptions." - [|Myers (2002)] Denzin & Lincoln: Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices taht make the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings and memeos to the self. At this level, qual resrach involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the owrld. This means taht qual researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research is a means for exploring and understanding the meaning of individuals or groups, ascribe to a social or human problem. Research Design, Cresswell p4. Use to hear silences voices (Freire), need a complex understanding of the problem, empower individuals to hear their stories, understand the context and statistical analysis simply does not fit the problem. //__ Natural Setting __// – A qualitative researcher generally conducts research in “the place in which the participants live and work” (Creswell, 2007, p. 20). The study is conducted in the field where the participants “experience the issue or problem” (p. 37). A major characteristic of qualitative research is the gathering of information by talking to them and observing their behaviors in context. Face-to-face interaction occurs over time. //__ Researcher as Key Instrument __// – The researcher determines the direction the study will take based upon philosophical assumptions and beliefs. According to Creswell (2007) philosophical assumptions fall under the category of ontology, epistemology, axiology, rhetorical, and methodological. Beliefs may include postpositivism, constructivism, advocacy/participatory, and pragmatism (Creswell, 2007). The researcher collects data themselves by using items such as questionnaires or instruments they have personally developed. //__ Multiple Sources of Data __// – A qualitative researcher may elect to gather from many types of personalized data such as, journals, videos, observations, recordings, interviews, technologies, etc. The researcher will then organize the data according to themes or patterns revealed through the data. //__ Inductive Data Analysis __// – The qualitative researcher constructs “patterns, categories, and themes” (Creswell, 2007, p. 38) from the data collected in the field. Start with broad categories then comes themes. The researcher builds patterns, categories, and themes from the “bottom-up.” This may involve collaborating with participant to help shape the emerging themes. //__ Participants’ Meanings __// – The focus of qualitative research is to glean the participant’s meanings of the issue or problem rather than the researcher’s interpretation of meaning. (Creswell, 2007). The focus is not on the meanings that can be found in the literature. A primary purpose of qualitative research is to protect the participants and their feelings. //__ Emergent Design __// – The design of qualitative research is not fixed and static, rather it needs to allow for flexibility based of the needs and/or ideas of the participants in their natural setting. Not for dissertation (you want to finish)! //__ Theoretical Lens __// – Typically, qualitative researchers “will use a lens to view their studies” (Creswell, 2007, p. 39) which may come from a particular philosophy or belief system. //__ Interpretative Inquiry to Understand __// – As a component of qualitative inquiry, the researcher interprets the situation being studied by the data collected from participants, the researcher brings personal experiences and background into the interpretation, and the readers of the study also make an interpretation. (Creswell, 2007) ~Reflexive Journal may be used to control bias & beliefs //__ Holistic Account/Rich Description __// – “Qualitative researchers try to develop a complex picture of the problem or issue under study. This involves reporting multiple perspectives, identifying the many factors involved in the situation, and generally sketching the larger picture that emerges” (Creswell, 2007, p. 39). // 2. To study topics in qualitative research, researchers ask **open-ended questions** that can change during the process of research to better reflect an increased understanding of the problem….how then; can a researcher retain some type of control over the focus on the study? Think about this… //
 * INTRODUCTION: ? **
 * INTRODUCTION: ? **
 * Key Concepts of Qualitative Research: Study Guide **// 1. How are the following **characteristics of qualitative research** enacted in the design and implementation of a study? Use Creswell and Merriam for information on each of the characteristics. //

My notes from class said to see Merriam p.89 for the table explaining the interview structure continuum (**Highly structured/standardized; Semistructured; Unstructured/informal**) for this question response. The overarching question and the sub questions drive the study. Open-ended interview questions should be structured around these “big idea” questions. “The central question can be encoded with the language of one of the five approaches to inquiry” (Creswell, 2007, p. 108). The subquestions can be either topical or issue-oriented (Creswell, p. 109). The researcher should pilot the questions in informal settings before asking them in formal research settings. This will allow the researcher to form a foundation of what makes a good question and which questions do not yield good responses. Marshall & Rossman (2006, as cited by Creswell, 2007) identified four types of questions: 1. exploratory (e.g., to investigate phenomenon little understood); 2. explanatory (e.g., to explain patterns related to phenomenon); 3. descriptive (e.g., to describe the phenomenon); 4. emancipatory (e.g., to engage in social action about the phenomenon). (Creswell, 2007, p. 107) The questions should restate the purpose of the study in more specific terms and use words such as “what” or “how”(Creswell, 2007, p. 107). Initial interview questions should be pre-determined in order to help inform the study. Use of a conceptual framework helps to guide the development of research questions. // 3. There are **4 types of information** gathering methods: //

// Interviews // -Kvale // Observations – // participant/ Merriam 124-125 // Documents also // online materials // Audiovisual Materials // –online documents, videos, // These methods can gather an extensive amount of data. How does a researcher work inductively from particulars in the data to more general perspectives to enable themes, codes, categories, dimensions, etc. to emerge? How would a researcher manage data to proceed through the **data analysis** stage? (See Miles & Huberman) //

“Sampling is crucial for later analysis” (Miles & Huberman, p. 27). Whom you look at or talk with, where, when, about what, and why—all place limits on the conclusions you can draw…”(p. 27). “Qualitative researchers usually work with //small// samples of people, nested in their context and studied in depth…”(p. 27). Qualitative samples are purposive (Miles & Huberman, p. 27). The researcher determines what selection criteria are essential for choosing people and/or sites (Merriam, p. 77). Also called criterion-based selection (LeCompte & Preissle, as cite by Merriam, p. 77). Qualitative sampling involves two actions. (1) set boundaries (2) theory-driven - a theory to frame your study. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Organization – Find data that are responsive to your research questions. The researcher organizes data within a software program or paper & pencil method (e.g. index cards & files). Analyze the data while it is being collected (Merriam, 2009, p. 170-173). Break the data down into bits of information and then assigning the bits to categories” (Merriam, p. 177). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Structure – May come from conceptual framework, also may emerge during research <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Time Frame – “Data collection and analysis is indeed an ongoing process that can extend indefinitely” (Merriam, 2009, p. 172). The researcher should stop when resources have been depleted (Merriam) or until the researcher “saturates” the categories (Creswell). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Participants Voices – use quotes from participants (Creswell, Merriam, Miles & Huberman) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Mechanics <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in;">Codes (Letters/Words) – Assigning shorthand designation to various <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; text-indent: 0.5in;">aspects of the data making it easier to retrieve (Merriam, 173). � <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Narrow…by looking at all pertinent data and grouping by most relevant – obtain non-overlapping, redundant data � <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Patterns=Themes –the researcher would take the groups of text coded a certain way and look for patterns or themes that emerge <span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Back up findings with quotes from participants.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Data Analysis **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Within “Case” ß <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">> Cross “Case” – the researcher would seek patterns within a single case and also within other cases under study. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 1.5in;">Bracketing – Reflexive Journal – Merriam –set aside prior experiences, thoughts, beliefs by writing them down or by talking about them with a peer.

<span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Management of data: //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">4. In a **qualitative design** the study often is presented in a scientific rese //// arch approach--problem, question(s), methods, findings-- then researchers let the “voices” of the ////<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">participants be heard…where and how is that done? // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">“Qualitative data, with their emphasis on people’s “lived experience,” are fundamentally well suited for locating the //meanings// people place on the events, processes, and structures of their lives: their “perceptions, assumptions, prejudgments, presuppositions” (van Manen, 1977) and connecting these meanings to the //social world// around them.” (Miles & Huberman, p. 10) <span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Participant voices should be threaded throughout the findings section of a study. This can be done by the inclusion of rich descriptions of participant responses, including quotations. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">The participants are heard in their natural setting, in the context of the event, experience, phenomenon, etc. This is done in several ways. The researcher can observe in the field and record notes during the observation. The researcher can interview participants and pose questions that promote elaboration about the central question. Questions should be open-ended and allow for participants to ascribe meaning to the experience. One may collect artifacts that exhibit the phenomena, experience, or issue.
 * 1) <span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Formatting – choose a format for organizing notes (loose-leaf notebook, file folders, note cards, etc) – structure should provide a map for the data
 * 2) <span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Cross Reference – data should be cross referenced for easy retrieval
 * 3) <span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Indexing – a coding system which defines categories, organizes categories into less-explicit structure, pairing codes with appropriate places in the database
 * 4) <span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Abstracting – writing condensed versions of longer material
 * 5) <span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Pagination – use unique letters/numbers as locators for materials in field notes

5. There are **ethical considerations** throughout all phases of the qualitative research process. How does the qualitative researcher anticipate and address the following in the design and implementation of a study: Seek consent – approach the potential participants, inform them of research plans, and obtain signed permission from organization (e.g. school district) and participants themselves Avoid deception – be open and honest with participants, communicate frequently with them about the research process, and engage them as partners by having them review analysis (use member checks) Miles & Huberman p. 292-293 Maintain confidentiality – create confidentiality agreements about where data and analyses will be stored and who will have access to them (Miles & Huberman, p. 293) Protect the anonymity of individuals – conceal any identifying information about participants such as, setting, location, demographics, names, age, etc. Gain access to and withdraw from the site and participants – submit proposal to IRB, obtain consent from organization/participants. Disclosure of motivation to study particular site, anonymity option, and purpose of study help build rapport. (Creswell, 2007, pp. 123-125) Employ reciprocity – “High quality interpretive or qualitative research involves a reciprocity between the researcher and those being researched. This standard requires that intense sharing, trust, and mutuality exist” (Creswell, 2007, p. 213). Be sensitive to power imbalances – research methods should maintain the core principles of ethical choices “beneficence, respect, justice” and “mutual respect, non-coercion and non manipulation, and support for democratic values and institutions” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, 289-290). Use nondiscriminatory language - use terms that demonstrate sensitivity towards participants (Merriam, 2009, p. 186) “categories should be sensitizing” Maintain respect for participants – see above core principles of ethical choices, be cognizant of harm and risk, ask participants to review analysis and findings before publishing, etc… Minimize risk to the participants – obtain informed consent, be cognizant of potential harm and risk, maintain privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">6. How is triangulation of data, member checking, and peer or external auditors employed as **__ validation strategies __**? <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Miles & Huberman (1994, p. 267) cite Denzin (1978) as “triangulation by data source (which can include persons, times, places, etc.), by method (observation, interview document), by researcher (investigator A, B, etc.)”. Miles & Huberman include data type (qualitative text, recordings, quantitative). It is characterized by “seeing or hearing multiple instances… from __multiple sources__ by using different methods” (Miles & Huberman, p. 267). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 15px;">Using triangulation gives a study “credibility” Linclon & Guba (Creswell, 2007, p. 204). The researcher takes multiple data sources and compares them, looking to find corroboration amongst the sources. “Member checking” means the participants review the text and/or analysis and results to confirm or disconfirm the findings. Peer or external auditors review the data, much like a bookkeeper (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 282) would perform an audit. An external auditor determines “whether accounts have been kept satisfactorily and whether the bottom line is correct” (p. 282). The researcher has an external source check the data and documentation.