Case+Study

[|Case Study]
** Case Study Research ** ** ﻿Focus: Involves the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within a bounded system. EG: Cyber bullying at Smithville HS. ** ** Developing an in-depth description and analysis of a case or multiple cases. ** ** Design: Providiong an in-depth understanding of a case or cases. ** ** Applications: to understand an issue or problem using the case as a specific illustration. **

As Yin (2003) stated, “A research design is the logic that links the data to be collected, to the initial questions of study” (p. 19). The opportunities afforded by using the case study research design lie in the complexity inherent in the case study approach and the multiple perspectives associated with different and varying sources of data (Rossman and Rallis, 2003, p. 105). Qualitative case studies, like other qualitative methods, also use inductive investigative strategy and the researcher functions as the primary instrument for the collection of data and analysis (Merriam, 2002, p. 179).Case studies are a complex and multilayered form of research (Rossman and Rallis, 2003, p. 104). The strength of case study research is that it is particularistic, heuristic, and descriptive (p. 104). The particularistic character of case study allows it to be a valuable tool in dealing with practical problems or focusing attention on a particular situation, event, or phenomenon (Merriam, 1998, p. 11). Next, the heuristic value in case study stimulates the reader’s interest in understanding the reasons for a particular occurrence, a problem, or patterns found within a system (Rossman and Rallis, 2003, p. 104). Finally, is the rich descriptive nature of the case study research design. Rich description, within the case study format, demonstrates the complex nature of the case in a way that is comprehensible to the reader. Rich description also “depicts how the passage of time has shaped events, provides vivid material, and presents differing perspectives or opinions” (p. 104). The result of this rich description is that it empowers the reader to determine for themselves the applicability of what is being discussed within the study (p. 105). Case studies serve the purpose of providing the researcher with an in-depth exploration of participants, programs, activities, and events (Creswell, 2009). Many researchers choose case study to explore real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of ideas and extension of methods (Soy, 2006). ** Definition and Boundaries **

It is important to note, the case study has many different meanings in different settings and disciplines (Glesne, 2006, p. 13). As Glesne suggests, “In qualitative inquiry, it sometimes appears to be used to refer to almost anything” (p. 13). However, the common theme within this methodology is that the case is a bounded system (whether the case is of an individual, group of individuals, or program) (Merriam, 2002, p. 178). The “common denominator” of a bounded system is a unit or single entity which has a finite quality (p. 178). This suggests that “a case study is a good approach when the researcher has clearly identifiable cases with boundaries and seeks to provide an in-depth understanding of the cases or a comparison of several cases” (Cresswell, 2007, p. 74). When assessing the appropriateness of case methodology as a research design within a study, Merriam (1998) discusses how appropriateness depends on the information the researcher is interested in knowing (p. 32). Much to the same extent, Strake (2000) suggests, “case study is not a methodological choice but a choice of what is to be studied” (p. 435). Case study aids the researcher in asking “how” and “why” questions. Rossman and Rallis (2003) also speak to the use of case study research in program exploration when they state, “program evaluations are often conducted as case studies to produce rich illustrations of what is happening in the program, to provide plausible explanations, and to extrapolate lessons learned” (p. p. 104). ** Experts **



Hamel, J., Dufour, S., & Fortin, D. (1993). //Case study methods//. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.  Stake, R. (1995). //The art of case research//. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. //__ R. Yin __//

 Yin, R. (1989a). //Case study research: Design and methods// (Rev. ed.). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing.     Yin, R. K. (2003). //Case Study Research: Design and Methods// (3rd ed.). Thousand Oak, CA: Sage. Case study can be classified by specific types and functions. The central function in historical and observational studies is the examination of the case over a period of time (Merriam, 2009). Merriam (2009) defines historical organizational case study as the study of the development of a particular organization over time (pg.47). In historical research, the researcher presents descriptive information from a historical perspective (Merriam, 2009). Observational case study focuses on a specific organization in which major data collection occurs in the form of observations (Merriam, 2009). ** Intrinsic and Instrumental ** Intrinsic case studies occur when the researcher is intrinsically interested in the area. Researchers take an intrinsic approach for the purpose of personal interest in the case. An instrumental case study occurs to provide insight into an issue or redraw a generalization (Merriam, 2009).
 * Historical and Observational **

** Multiple or Collective Cases **

Although Stake (1995, p. 2) is not in favor of a formal definition of case study, this research methodology can be characterized by the size of the cases (Cresswell, 2007, p. 74). Cases can consist of an individual, numerous individuals, a group, a program, policies, strengths, problems, an organization, or an activity (Cresswell, 2007, p. 74; Stake, 2006, p. vi). When more than one case is involved it is called a collective case or a multiple case study. As Cresswell (2007, p. 75) states, “When multiple cases are chosen, a typical format is to first provide a detailed description of each case and themes within the case, called //within case analysis//, followed by thematic analysis across the cases, called //cross-case analysis// as well as assertions or an interpretation of the meaning of the case”. Research suggests that six to ten cases is the appropriate number for a multiple case study (Yin, 2003, p. 47; Stake, 2000, p. 22). In a situation with only two or three cases, there may not be enough interactivity between programs, however, more than ten cases increase the likelihood that the complexity of the cases will overwhelm the researcher (Stake, 2000, p. 22). 

Rossman and Rallis (2003, p. 270) suggest that the collection and analysis of data, in a qualitative study (like case study), starts at the beginning of the study during the conceptualization stage. The framework, purpose, research questions, literature review, design, and genre of a study all provide foreshadowing for the data collection and analysis that will eventually be conducted (p, 270). From this perspective the collection and analysis of data is changing throughout the study. The process is influenced by the collection of new data which fills gaps in the current data and eventually aids in the process of a final analysis. Case Studies are conducted to portray the complexities inherent in a particular situation or event and the analysis should take into account a number of different types of data (Rossman & Rallis, 2003, p. 278). Yin (2003, p. 97) suggest that to account for this complexity and to establish both construct validity and reliability of the case study evidence, a researcher should use a number of difference sources of evidence. The application of multiple sources of data, from multiple points of view, while taking into account a number of different methods, help establish the complete picture of the study and not just a fraction of the study’s complexity (Rossman & Rallis, 2003, p.69). 

Interview data is one of the most beneficial sources of information in case study methodology (Yin, 2003, p. 89). This is primarily due to the nature of the studies and the emphasis on relationships and human affairs (p. 92). As Patton (2002) suggests, “We interview people to find out from them those things we cannot directly observe. We cannot observe how people have organized the world and the meanings they attach to what goes on in the world” (p. 340). As suggested by Yin (2003, p. 89) these interviews were one-on-one utilizing open ended questions which allowed for the interview to be more conversational in nature. 

Yin (2003, p. 92) states “the observation can range from formal to casual data collection activities…this can involve observations of meetings, sidewalk activities, classrooms, and the like”. Additionally, he mentions that the less formal observations may be made during other activities like interviewing (p. 92). The direct observation data collected provides additional information regarding the varying categories being studied. A observational protocol needs to be designed to record notes in the field. The observational tool included both descriptive and reflective notes to allow the researcher to record the physical setting, political climate, experiences, reactions and insights (Creswell, 2007, p. 134). 

There are a number of different ways in which documentation can play a role in case study methodology including: (1) collecting personal letters or information from participants; (2) the analysis of public documents including official memos, assessments, minutes, records, archival materials; (3) photographs and video; (4) charts or diagrams; (5) medical records; and (6) a personal diary kept during the research study (Creswell, 2007, p. 130). In most cases this archival data can help provide an opportunity to validate the interview data collected. 

Yin (2003, p. 101) also suggests the use of a database collection tool to help increase both reliability and validity in the study. This database should be used to organize, document, and, if possible, to analyze the data collected (p. 101). One effective database collection tool is computer software which can be utilized to store and easily access many different types of data. Some of the benefits of a computer based database collection tool are: (a) easy accessibility to entire cases or specific characteristics of a case; (b) that the program helps the researcher search for text quicker and aids in the location of material (ideas, statements, phrases, or words) to be analyzed; (c) that the computer program can require the researcher to give more attention to the data and coding process; and (d) that the mapping and graphing features of a computer program allow the researcher to visually see relationships between the data (Creswell, 2007, p. 165). On the other hand, there are some drawbacks to utilizing computer programs to organize and analyze data. These potential pitfalls include: (a) the time involved with learning the new technology; (b) the perception of distance between the data and the researcher; (c) the computer program may not meet the specific needs of the researcher based on the particular method of study; and (d) the ability to manipulate the data may be seen as a barrier to quickly completing the study due to the numerous options in arranging the data (Creswell, 2007, pp. 165-166). However, it is important to note that a number of these disadvantages can be handled by the researcher fully engaging in the data. Although it is a common misbelief that the computer program will develop and apply the data codes it is still the responsibility of the researcher to interpret and make decisions regarding the data. This requires the researcher to fully appreciate the data so he/she can utilize the computer program appropriately (Glesne, 2006, p. 162). One popular data collection and analysis tool is the NVivo software package, from QSR International, which stores and analyzes rich text files (Medley, 2001, p.142). The researcher codes the data based on patterns discovered throughout the collection and analysis. NVivo software then “collects the text that was coded under each of the patterns and placed each piece of text into a node that described the pattern” (Medley, 2001, p.142). Finally, the computer software is use to explore the relationships between the nodes. These relationships can be utilized to build models/systems based on the data. Other functions of NVivo include: (a) the opportunity to use multiple languages; (b) a merge function for team research; and (c) easy access to search and sort functions (Creswell, 2007, pp. 167). Finally, NVivo increases reliability and validity by providing security to a researcher’s data by collecting and organizing all the data (interviews, documentation, researcher’s notes) in a single file. ** External Links **

**Case Study Wikipedia** - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study **Introduction to Case Study** - http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.html **Case Study as a Methodology** - http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~ssoy/usesusers/l391d1b.htm **Overview of Case Study Research** - http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/casestudy/ **Annotated Bibliography of Case Study Research** - http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/casestudy/pop2e.cfm

** References **

Creswell, J.W. (2009). //Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed research methods// //approaches// (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Cresswell, J.W. (2007). //Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches// (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Glesne, C. (2006). //Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction//. NYC: Pearson Education. Medley, M.D. (2001). Using Qualitative Research Software for CS Education Research. Proceedings of the 6th annual Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education, 141-144, in Canterbury, UK. Merriam, S. B. (2009). //Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation.// San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.

Merriam, S.B. (2002). //Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis//. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Merriam, S.B. (1998). //Qualitative research and case study applications in education// (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative //Research and Evaluation Methods//. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rossman, G., & Rallis, S.F. (2003). //Learning in the field: An introduction to qualitative research.// Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Soy, S. (2006). The case study as a research method. Retrieved March 20, 2011, from []. Stake, R.E. (1995). //The art of cases study research//. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stake, R.E. (2000).Case studies. In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Ed.), //Handbook of qualitative research// (2nd ed.). (pp. 435-454). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Yin, R. K. (2003). //Case Study Research: Design and Methods// (3rd ed.). Thousa nd Oak, CA: Sage.

Referring links: [|(u03a1) Five Approaches to Qualitative Research]