Ed+Research+Sample

=** Introduction: **= Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. According to Denzin and Lincoln, it consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings and memos to the self. At this level, qual research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qual researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Creswell describes qual research as a means for exploring and understanding the meanings of individuals and groups, ascribe to a social or human problem. Qual research has several key concepts. It takes place in the natural setting, the researcher is a key instrument in the process, there are multiple sources of data, inductive analysis is used to analyze data, the focus is to get the participant's meanings in the study. The design is emergent in that is not fixed but is flexible and develops over the life of the study. Qual resaerchers use a theoretical lens to view their study. The rersearcher uses interpretative inquiry to understand the situation being studied. Researcher develop a holistic account, rich description of the situation.

Researchers take a stance on philosophical and theoretical assumptions when consdiering a research topic. These assumptions depict the type of study and methods the resaercher will use.

There are four theoretical assumptions that can be used in qualitative research. **(PAPS)** Postpositivism is the scientific approach to research. Social constructivism is the understanding of world in which they live and work. Advocacy/participatory is for marginalized groups. Research should help provide reform in society. Pragmatism uses multiple methods of data collection to best answer the research question. Not committed to any one system of philosophy and reality but a mx of various beliefs. Among the theoretical assumptions lies several interpretive communities that researchers view through a theoretical lense. They are post modern perspectives, feminist theories, critical theory, queer theory, and disability theory.

There are five philosophical assumptions used in qual research. **(OARME)** Philosophical assumptions: CresswellOntological: Nature of reality. Reality is subjective and multiple seen by participants in the study. Use quotes, themes and words of participants.Epistemological: Relationship between the researcher and that being researched. The researcher becomes an insider.Axiological: The role of values. Acknowledge reserach is value-laden.Rhetorical: Looks at the language of research and uses personal voice.Methodological: The process of research. Uses inductive logic and emergent design. Problem Statement: Describes the need for increased study of an understanding about the issue to be studied. ** Research Questions: ** The Central Question- The overarching question, the broadest question, that could be posed about the research problem.4 types: exploratory, explanatory, descriptive and emancipatory (to engage in social action about the phenomenon).Sub-Questions:Issue-Oriented- address majpr concerns to be resolved. Take the phenomenon and central question and break into sub-topics.Procedural- Anticipated needs for information and procedural steps in thr process of research for the approach. Using the phenomologocal approach, an example would be (Fill in YOUR RESEARCH FROM PROPOSAL- Problem statement, central question, issue sub questions and procedural sub questions) When conductiong a qual inquiry, according to Cresswell, it is best to use one of the 5 approches because it enhances the rigor of the research. There are five types of qualitative inquiry. They are phenomonology, case study, narrative, ethnography, and grounded theory. A researcher choses which design to use based on the rigor and sophistication of the design. The focus of grounded theory is developing a theory grounded in data fron the field (Glasser and Strauss). Design: A qualitative research design in which the inquirer generates a general explanation (a theory) of a process, action, or interaction shaped by the views of a large number of participants (Creswell, 2007, p. 63 ﻿ ). The application for grounded theory is the participants in the study would all have experienced the process, and the development of the theory might help explain practice or provide a framework for further research. The focus of an ethnography study is to d escribe and interpret a culture-sharing group. In the design, the resaercher primarily observes and interviews the cultural group in order to devlop themes about the group. The researcher applies this design when they want to learn on the whole: Language, culture, power resistance, and how the group works. The case study **involves the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within a bounded system. EG: Cyber bullying at Smithville HS.** The focus of narrative research is to explore the life of an individual. **Developing an in-depth description and analysis of a case or multiple cases.** In the design, the researcher uses multiple sources such as interviews, observations, documents and artifacts to p ** rovide an in-depth understanding of a case or cases.** ** The design for implementing this research consists of studying one or two individuals, gathering data through the collection of their stories, reporting individual experiences, and chronologically ordering the meaning of those experiences. Meriam describes this type of resaerch to best be used to assist in practical problems. **

** The researcher applies this method when exploring the life of the individual is the focus. Best suited for studies needing to tell sories of individual experiences. (Cresswell) ** According to Moustakas, the focus of phenomonology is to understand the essence of the experience.The design of theis method primarily utilizes interviews to describe the essence of a lilved phenomenon. The researcher should apply this method to understand several individuals common experiences in order to develop practices or policies or a deeper understanding of the philosophy. Types of sampling: Miles and Huberman describe sampling as being purposive. There are two types of sampling, probability and nonprobability. Nonprobability is the method os choice for qual. The most common form is purposeful sampling and is based on what the investigator wants to discover. **Convenience sampling** is purposeful. It relies on time, money location and availability of site or respondents. **Snowball** is the most common purposeful sampling. The researcher selects a few key participants and then it spreads to include other particiants. Then, there is **typical sampling** that reflects the avearge person, situation or instance of the phenomenon of interest. **Unique** is based on the uniques attribute of the individual. **Maximum variation** is the last which is the widely varying instances of the phenomenon through two perspectives (range).

//** Data Collection Methods: **// //** There are four types of data collection used in qualitative research. They are interviews, observations, documents (including online), and AV materials. **// Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, open-ended or conducted with a focus group. Observations gather field notes by observation or as a participant. Documents can be journals, analyzing public documents, and reviewing the medical records. One can examine video tapes, photographs, sounds or text messages for AV materials. Analysis of Data:

According to Creswell, the g // eneral analysis Procedures for qualitative study: //

Analysis begins when the data is first collected and is used to guide decisions related to further data collection.

// 1. Prepare and organize the data for analysis // // 2. Reduce the data into tehmes for a process of coding and condensing the codes. // // 3. Represent the data in figures, tables or discussion. //

// Collection and analysis is ongoing (Meriam). The researcher should stop when resources are depleted or until categories are saturated. //

Validation strategies: Three popular validation strategies are triangulation of data, member checking, and peer or external auditors. Miles & Huberman (1994, p. 267) cite Denzin (1978) as “triangulation by data source (which can include persons, times, places, etc.), by method (observation, interview document), by researcher (investigator A, B, etc.)”. Miles & Huberman include data type (qualitative text, recordings, quantitative). It is characterized by “seeing or hearing multiple instances… from __multiple sources__ by using different methods” (Miles & Huberman, p. 267). Using triangulation gives a study “credibility” Linclon & Guba (Creswell, 2007, p. 204). The researcher takes multiple data sources and compares them, looking to find corroboration amongst the sources. “Member checking” means the participants review the text and/or analysis and results to confirm or disconfirm the findings. Peer or external auditors review the data, much like a bookkeeper (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 282) would perform an audit. An external auditor determines “whether accounts have been kept satisfactorily and whether the bottom line is correct” (p. 282). The researcher has an external source check the data and documentation.

There are **ethical considerations** throughout all phases of the qualitative research process. Seek consent – approach the potential participants, inform them of research plans, and obtain signed permission from organization (e.g. school district) and participants themselves

Avoid deception – be open and honest with participants, communicate frequently with them about the research process, and engage them as partners by having them review analysis (use member checks) Miles & Huberman p. 292-293

Maintain confidentiality – create confidentiality agreements about where data and analyses will be stored and who will have access to them (Miles & Huberman, p. 293)

Protect the anonymity of individuals – conceal any identifying information about participants such as, setting, location, demographics, names, age, etc.

Gain access to and withdraw from the site and participants – submit proposal to IRB, obtain consent from organization/participants. Disclosure of motivation to study particular site, anonymity option, and purpose of study help build rapport. (Creswell, 2007, pp. 123-125)

Employ reciprocity – “High quality interpretive or qualitative research involves a reciprocity between the researcher and those being researched. This standard requires that intense sharing, trust, and mutuality exist” (Creswell, 2007, p. 213).

Be sensitive to power imbalances – research methods should maintain the core principles of ethical choices “beneficence, respect, justice” and “mutual respect, non-coercion and non manipulation, and support for democratic values and institutions” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, 289-290).

Use nondiscriminatory language - use terms that demonstrate sensitivity towards participants (Merriam, 2009, p. 186) “categories should be sensitizing”

Maintain respect for participants – see above core principles of ethical choices, be cognizant of harm and risk, ask participants to review analysis and findings before publishing, etc…

Minimize risk to the participants – obtain informed consent, be cognizant of potential harm and risk, maintain privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity.

There are many important aspects involved in ualitative research. It is emergent and develops as the reasercher gains knowledge of the participants.

Qualitative researchers use this approach to hear silences voices (Freire), need a complex understanding of the problem, empower individuals to hear their stories, understand the context and statistical analysis simply does not fit the problem. The researcher should select the appropraite inquiry design for the proposed study keeping in mind the many different ethical considerations. The researcher should choose a nonprobability sampling technique to be employed by the study, The researcher will also use one or several data collection methods. During data analysis, it is important that the researcher maintain credibility by using methods such a s ttriangulation, external auditors and member checking, Qualitative research is important because it offers a perspective instead of the traditional quantitative values seen in past studies. (P235 - consumer research book)